International Emergency Nursing
Volume 17, Issue 4 , Pages 203-225 , October 2009

Post-cardiac arrest syndrome: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, treatment, and prognostication: A Scientific Statement from the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation; the American Heart Association Emergency Cardiovascular Care Committee; the Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia; the Council on Cardiopulmonary, Perioperative, and Critical Care; the Council on Clinical Cardiology; the Council on Stroke (Part 1)

References 

  1. Adams JA. Endothelium and cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Crit. Care Med. 2006;34:S458–S465
  2. Adrie C, Adib-Conquy M, Laurent I, et al. Successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation after cardiac arrest as a “sepsis-like” syndrome. Circulation. 2002;106:562–568
  3. Adrie C, Laurent I, Monchi M, Cariou A, Dhainaou JF, Spaulding C. Postresuscitation disease after cardiac arrest: a sepsis-like syndrome?. Curr. Opin. Crit. Care. 2004;10:208–212
  4. Adrie C, Monchi M, Laurent I, et al. Coagulopathy after successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation following cardiac arrest: implication of the protein C anticoagulant pathway. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2005;46:21–28
  5. Adrie C, Haouache H, Saleh M, et al. An underrecognized source of organ donors: patients with brain death after successfully resuscitated cardiac arrest. Intensive Care Med. 2008;34:132–137
  6. Ali AA, Lim E, Thanikachalam M, et al. Cardiac arrest in the organ donor does not negatively influence recipient survival after heart transplantation. Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg. 2007;31:929–933
  7. Ames A, Wright RL, Kowada M, Thurston JM, Majno G. Cerebral ischemia. II. The no-reflow phenomenon. Am. J. Pathol. 1968;52:437–453
  8. Antman EM, Anbe DT, Armstrong PW, et al. ACC/AHA guidelines for the management of patients with ST-elevation myocardial infarction – executive summary. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to revise the 1999 guidelines for the management of patients with acute myocardial infarction). J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2004;44:671–719
  9. The Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network, 2000. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 342, 1301–1308.
  10. Auer RN. Insulin, blood glucose levels, and ischemic brain damage. Neurology. 1998;51:S39–S43
  11. Aufderheide TP, Lurie KG. Death by hyperventilation: a common and life-threatening problem during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Crit. Care Med. 2004;32:S345–S3451
  12. Aufderheide TP, Sigurdsson G, Pirrallo RG, et al. Hyperventilation-induced hypotension during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Circulation. 2004;109:1960–1965
  13. Balan IS, Fiskum G, Hazelton J, Cotto-Cumba C, Rosen-thai RE. Oximetry-guided reoxygenation improves neurological outcome after experimental cardiac arrest. Stroke. 2006;37:3008–3013
  14. Bano D, Nicotera P. Ca2+ signals and neuronal death in brain ischemia. Stroke. 2007;38:674–676
  15. Bass E. Cardiopulmonary arrest. Pathophysiology and neurologic complications. Ann. Intern. Med. 1985;103:920–927
  16. Beckstead JE, Tweed WA, Lee J, MacKeen WL. Cerebral blood flow and metabolism in man following cardiac arrest. Stroke. 1978;9:569–573
  17. Bendz B, Eritsland J, Nakstad AR, et al. Long-term prognosis after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest and primary percutaneous coronary intervention. Resuscitation. 2004;63:49–53
  18. Bernard SA, Gray TW, Buist MD, et al. Treatment of comatose survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest with induced hypothermia. N. Engl. J. Med. 2002;346:557–563
  19. Blomgren K, Zhu C, Hallin U, Hagberg H. Mitochondria and ischemic reperfusion damage in the adult and in the developing brain. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2003;304:551–559
  20. Blomqvist P, Wieloch T. Ischemic brain damage in rats following cardiac arrest using a long-term recovery model. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1985;5:420–431
  21. Bottiger BW, Motsch J, Bohrer H, et al. Activation of blood coagulation after cardiac arrest is not balanced adequately by activation of endogenous fibrinolysis. Circulation. 1995;92:2572–2578
  22. Bottiger BW, Krumnikl JJ, Gass P, Schmitz B, Motsch J, Martin E. The cerebral ‘no-reflow’ phenomenon after cardiac arrest in rats—influence of low-flow reperfusion. Resuscitation. 1997;34:79–87
  23. Breil M, Krep H, Sinn D, et al. Hypertonic saline improves myocardial blood flow during CPR, but is not enhanced further by the addition of hydroxy ethyl starch. Resuscitation. 2003;56:307–317
  24. Bricolo A, Turazzi S, Feriotti G. Prolonged posttraumatic unconsciousness: therapeutic assets and liabilities. J. Neurosurg. 1980;52:625–634
  25. Brierley JB, Meldrum BS, Brown AW. The threshold and neuropathology of cerebral “anoxic-ischemic” cell change. Arch. Neurol. 1973;29:367–374
  26. Bulut S, Aengevaeren WR, Luijten HJ, Verheugt FW. Successful out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation: what is the optimal in-hospital treatment strategy?. Resuscitation. 2000;47:155–161
  27. Busch M, Soreide E, Lossius HM, Lexow K, Dickstein K. Rapid implementation of therapeutic hypothermia in comatose out-of-hospital cardiac arrest survivors. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand. 2006;50:1277–1283
  28. Buunk G, van der Hoeven JG, Frolich M, Meinders AE. Cerebral vasoconstriction in comatose patients resuscitated from a cardiac arrest?. Intensive Care Med. 1996;22:1191–1196
  29. Buunk G, van der Hoeven JG, Meinders AE. Cerebrovascular reactivity in comatose patients resuscitated from a cardiac arrest. Stroke. 1997;28:1569–1573
  30. Calle PA, Buylaert WA, Vanhaute OA. Glycemia in the post-resuscitation period. The Cerebral Resuscitation Study Group. Resuscitation. 1989;17(Suppl):S181–S188discussion S99-206
  31. Cavaillon JM, Adrie C, Fitting C, Adib-Conquy M. Endotoxin tolerance: is there a clinical relevance?. J. Endotoxin Res. 2003;9:101–107
  32. Caviness JN, Brown P. Myoclonus: current concepts and recent advances. Lancet Neurol. 2004;3:598–607
  33. Cerchiari EL, Safar P, Klein E, Cantadore R, Pinsky M. Cardiovascular function and neurologic outcome after cardiac arrest in dogs. The cardiovascular post-resuscitation syndrome. Resuscitation. 1993;25:9–33
  34. Cerchiari EL, Safar P, Klein E, Diven W. Visceral, hematologic and bacteriologic changes and neurologic outcome after cardiac arrest in dogs. The visceral post-resuscitation syndrome. Resuscitation. 1993;25:119–136
  35. Coles JP, Fryer TD, Coleman MR, et al. Hyperventilation following head injury: effect on ischemic burden and cerebral oxidative metabolism. Crit. Care Med. 2007;35:568–578
  36. Courtney DM, Kline JA. Prospective use of a clinical decision rule to identify pulmonary embolism as likely cause of outpatient cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 2005;65:57–64
  37. Davies MJ, Thomas A. Thrombosis and acute coronary-artery lesions in sudden cardiac ischemic death. N. Engl. J. Med. 1984;310:1137–1140
  38. de Vos R, de Haes HC, Koster RW, de Haan RJ. Quality of survival after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Arch. Intern. Med. 1999;159:249–254
  39. Dellinger RP, Levy MM, Carlet JM, et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2008. Crit. Care Med. 2008;36:296–327
  40. Donnino MW, Miller J, Goyal N, et al. Effective lactate clearance is associated with improved outcome in post-cardiac arrest patients. Resuscitation. 2007;75:229–234
  41. Donoghue AJ, Nadkarni V, Berg RA, et al. Out-of-hospital pediatric cardiac arrest: an epidemiologic review and assessment of current knowledge. Ann. Emerg. Med. 2005;46:512–522
  42. Engdahl J, Abrahamsson P, Bang A, Lindqvist J, Karlsson T, Herlitz J. Is hospital care of major importance for outcome after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest? Experience acquired from patients with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest resuscitated by the same Emergency Medical Service and admitted to one of two hospitals over a 16-year period in the municipality of Goteborg. Resuscitation. 2000;43:201–211
  43. Esmon CT. Coagulation and inflammation. J. Endotoxin Res. 2003;9:192–198
  44. Fertl E, Vass K, Sterz F, Gabriel H, Auff E. Neurological rehabilitation of severely disabled cardiac arrest survivors. Part I. Course of post-acute inpatient treatment. Resuscitation. 2000;17:438–452
  45. Fischer M, Bottiger BW, Popov-Cenic S, Hossmann KA. Thrombolysis using plasminogen activator and heparin reduces cerebral no-reflow after resuscitation from cardiac arrest: an experimental study in the cat. Intensive Care Med. 1996;22:1214–1223
  46. Forsman M, Aarseth HP, Nordby HK, Skulberg A, Steen PA. Effects of nimodipine on cerebral blood flow and cerebrospinal fluid pressure after cardiac arrest: correlation with neurologic outcome. Anesth. Analg. 1989;68:436–443
  47. Gando S, Nanzaki S, Morimoto Y, Kobayashi S, Kemmotsu O. Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest increases soluble vascular endothelial adhesion molecules and neutrophil elastase associated with endothelial injury. Intensive Care Med. 2000;26:38–44
  48. Garot P, Lefevre T, Eltchaninoff H, et al. Six-month outcome of emergency percutaneous coronary intervention in resuscitated patients after cardiac arrest complicating ST-elevation myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2007;115:1354–1362
  49. Gazmuri RJ, Weil MH, Bisera J, Tang W, Fukui M, McKee D. Myocardial dysfunction after successful resuscitation from cardiac arrest. Crit. Care Med. 1996;24:992–1000
  50. Geppert A, Zorn G, Karth GD, et al. Soluble selectins and the systemic inflammatory response syndrome after successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Crit. Care Med. 2000;28:2360–2365
  51. Giacino JT, Ashwal S, Childs N, et al. The minimally conscious state: definition and diagnostic criteria. Neurology. 2002;58:349–353
  52. Gorjup V, Radsel P, Kocjancic ST, Erzen D, Noc M. Acute ST-elevation myocardial infarction after successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Resuscitation. 2007;72:379–385
  53. Groswasser Z, Cohen M, Costeff H. Rehabilitation outcome after anoxic brain damage. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 1989;70:186–188
  54. Hypothermia after Cardiac Arrest Study Group, 2002. Mild therapeutic hypothermia to improve the neurologic outcome after cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 346, 549–556.
  55. Hekimian G, Baugnon T, Thuong M, et al. Cortisol levels and adrenal reserve after successful cardiac arrest resuscitation. Shock. 2004;22:116–119
  56. Herlitz J, Ekstrom L, Wennerblom B, Axelsson A, Bang A, Holm-berg S. Hospital mortality after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest among patients found in ventricular fibrillation. Resuscitation. 1995;29:11–21
  57. Herlitz J, Engdahl J, Svensson L, Angquist KA, Silfverstolpe J, Holmberg S. Major differences in 1-month survival between hospitals in Sweden among initial survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 2006;70:404–409
  58. Hossmann KA, Oschlies U, Schwindt W, Krep H. Electron microscopic investigation of rat brain after brief cardiac arrest. Acta Neuropathol. (Berl). 2001;101:101–113
  59. Hovdenes J, Laake JH, Aaberge L, Haugaa H, Bugge JF. Therapeutic hypothermia after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: experiences with patients treated with percutaneous coronary intervention and cardiogenic shock. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand. 2007;51:137–142
  60. Huang L, Weil MH, Tang W, Sun S, Wang J. Comparison between dobutamine and levosimendan for management of postresuscitation myocardial dysfunction. Crit. Care Med. 2005;33:487–491
  61. Huikuri HV, Castellanos A, Myerburg RJ. Sudden death due to cardiac arrhythmias. N. Engl. J. Med. 2001;345:1473–1482
  62. Jacobs I, Nadkarni V, Bahr J, et al. Cardiac arrest and cardiopulmonary resuscitation outcome reports: update and simplification of the Utstein templates for resuscitation registries. A statement for healthcare professionals from a task force of the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (American Heart Association, European Resuscitation Council, Australian Resuscitation Council, New Zealand ResuscitationCouncil, Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada, InterAmerican Heart Foundation, Resuscitation Council of Southern Africa). Resuscitation. 2004;63:233–249
  63. 1966. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation. JAMA 198, 372–379.
  64. Karimova A, Pinsky DJ. The endothelial response to oxygen deprivation: biology and clinical implications. Intensive Care Med. 2001;27:19–31
  65. Katz LM, Wang Y, Ebmeyer U, Radovsky A, Safar P. Glucose plus insulin infusion improves cerebral outcome after asphyxial cardiac arrest. Neuroreport. 1998;9:3363–3367
  66. Keelan PC, Bunch TJ, White RD, Packer DL, Holmes DR. Early direct coronary angioplasty in survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Am. J. Cardiol. 2003;91:1461–1463A6
  67. Keenan SP, Dodek P, Martin C, Priestap F, Norena M, Wong H. Variation in length of intensive care unit stay after cardiac arrest: where you are is as important as who you are. Crit. Care Med. 2007;35:836–841
  68. Kern KB, Hilwig RW, Rhee KH, Berg RA. Myocardial dysfunction after resuscitation from cardiac arrest: an example of global myocardial stunning. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1996;28:232–240
  69. Kern KB, Hilwig RW, Berg RA, et al. Postresuscitation left ventricular systolic and diastolic dysfunction. Treatment with dobutamine. Circulation. 1997;95:2610–2613
  70. Khot S, Tirschwell DL. Long-term neurological complications after hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Semin. Neurol. 2006;26:422–431
  71. Kliegel A, Losert H, Sterz F, et al. Serial lactate determinations for prediction of outcome after cardiac arrest. Medicine (Baltimore). 2004;83:274–279
  72. Knafelj R, Radsel P, Ploj T, Noc M. Primary percutaneous coronary intervention and mild induced hypothermia in comatose survivors of ventricular fibrillation with ST-elevation acute myocardial infarction. Resuscitation. 2007;74:227–234
  73. Krep H, Breil M, Sinn D, Hagendorff A, Hoeft A, Fischer M. Effects of hypertonic versus isotonic infusion therapy on regional cerebral blood flow after experimental cardiac arrest cardiopulmonary resuscitation in pigs. Resuscitation. 2000;47:155–161139
  74. Krumholz A, Stern BJ, Weiss HD. Outcome from coma after cardiopulmonary resuscitation: relation to seizures and myoclonus. Neurology. 1988;38:401–405
  75. Kuisma M, Alaspaa A. Out-of-hospital cardiac arrests of non-cardiac origin. Epidemiology and outcome. Eur. Heart J. 1997;18:1122–1128
  76. Kurkciyan I, Meron G, Sterz F, et al. Pulmonary embolism as a cause of cardiac arrest: presentation and outcome. Arch. Intern. Med. 2000;160:1529–1535
  77. Kurkciyan I, Meron G, Sterz F, et al. Major bleeding complications after cardiopulmonary resuscitation: impact of thrombolytic treatment. J. Intern. Med. 2003;253:128–135
  78. Kurusz M, Zwischenberger JB. Percutaneous cardiopulmonary bypass for cardiac emergencies. Perfusion. 2002;17:269–277
  79. Lai CS, Hostler D, D’Cruz BJ, Callaway CW. Prevalence of troponin-T elevation during out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Am. J. Cardiol. 2004;93:754–756
  80. Langhelle A, Tyvold SS, Lexow K, Hapnes SA, Sunde K, Steen PA. In-hospital factors associated with improved outcome after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. A comparison between four regions in Norway. Resuscitation. 2003;56:247–263
  81. Langhelle A, Nolan J, Herlitz J, et al. Recommended guidelines for reviewing, reporting, and conducting research on post-resuscitation care: the Utstein style. Resuscitation. 2005;66:271–283
  82. Laurent I, Monchi M, Chiche JD, et al. Reversible myocardial dysfunction in survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2002;40:2110–2116
  83. Laurent I, Adrie C, Vinsonneau C, et al. High-volume hemofil-tration after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: a randomized study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2005;46:432–437
  84. Laver S, Farrow C, Turner D, Nolan J. Mode of death after admission to an intensive care unit following cardiac arrest. Intensive Care Med. 2004;30:2126–2128
  85. Leonov Y, Sterz F, Safar P, Johnson DW, Tisherman SA, Oku K. Hypertension with hemodilution prevents multifocal cerebral hypoperfusion after cardiac arrest in dogs. Stroke. 1992;23:45–53
  86. Levy DE, Knill-Jones RP, Plum F. The vegetative state and its prognosis following nontraumatic coma. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 1978;315:293–306
  87. Levy DE, Caronna JJ, Singer BH, Lapinski RH, Frydman H, Plum F. Predicting outcome from hypoxic-ischemic coma. JAMA. 1985;253:1420–1426
  88. lida K, Satoh H, Arita K, Nakahara T, Kurisu K, Ohtani M. Delayed hyperemia causing intracranial hypertension after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Crit. Care Med. 1997;25:971–976
  89. Lipton P. Ischemic cell death in brain neurons. Physiol. Rev. 1999;79:1431–1568
  90. Liu Y, Rosenthal RE, Haywood Y, Miljkovic-Lolic M, Vanderhoek JY, Fiskum G. Normoxic ventilation after cardiac arrest reduces oxidation of brain lipids and improves neurological outcome. Stroke. 1998;29:1679–1686
  91. Longstreth WT, Inui TS. High blood glucose level on hospital admission and poor neurological recovery after cardiac arrest. Ann. Neurol. 1984;15:59–63
  92. Longstreth WT, Diehr P, Inui TS. Prediction of awakening after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 1983;308:1378–1382
  93. Longstreth WT, Copass MK, Dennis LK, Rauch-Matthews ME, Stark MS, Cobb LA. Intravenous glucose after out-of-hospital cardiopulmonary arrest: a community-based randomized trial. Neurology. 1993;43:2534–2541
  94. Martin LJ, Al-Abdulla NA, Brambrink AM, Kirsch JR, Sieber FE, Portera-Cailliau C. Neurodegeneration in excitotoxicity, global cerebral ischemia, and target deprivation: a perspective on the contributions of apoptosis and necrosis. Brain Res. Bull. 1998;46:281–309
  95. Mashiko K, Otsuka T, Shimazaki S, et al. An outcome study of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest using the Utstein template – a Japanese experience. Resuscitation. 2002;55:241–246
  96. Massetti M, Tasle M, Le Page 0, et al. Back from irreversibility: extracorporeal life support for prolonged cardiac arrest. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 2005;79:178–183discussion 83-4
  97. Mclntyre LA, Fergusson DA, Hutchison JS, et al. Effect of a liberal versus restrictive transfusion strategy on mortality in patients with moderate to severe head injury. Neurocrit. Care. 2006;5:4–9
  98. Michenfelder JD, Milde JH. Postischemic canine cerebral blood flow appears to be determined by cerebral metabolic needs. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1990;10:71–76
  99. Moers C, Leuvenink HG, Ploeg RJ. Non-heart beating organ donation: overview and future perspectives. Transpl. Int. 2007;20:567–575
  100. Morimoto Y, Kemmotsu O, Kitami K, Matsubara I, Tedo I. Acute brain swelling after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: pathogenesis and outcome. Crit. Care Med. 1993;21:104–110
  101. Morris MC, Wernovsky G, Nadkarni VM. Survival outcomes after extracorporeal cardiopulmonary resuscitation instituted during active chest compressions following refractory in-hospital pediatric cardiac arrest. Pediatr. Crit. Care Med. 2004;5:440–446
  102. Moruzzi G, Magoun HW. Brain stem reticular formation and activation of the EEG. 1949. J. Neuropsychi. Clin. Neurosci. 1995;7:251–267
  103. Muizelaar JP, Marmarou A, Ward JD, et al. Adverse effects of prolonged hyperventilation in patients with severe head injury: a randomized clinical trial. J. Neurosurg. 1991;75:731–739
  104. Mullner M, Hirschl MM, Herkner H, et al. Creatine kinase-mb fraction and cardiac troponin T to diagnose acute myocardial infarction after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1996;28:1220–1225
  105. Mullner M, Sterz F, Binder M, et al. Arterial blood pressure after human cardiac arrest and neurological recovery. Stroke. 1996;27:59–62
  106. Mullner M, Sterz F, Binder M, Schreiber W, Deimel A, Lag-gner AN. Blood glucose concentration after cardiopulmonary resuscitation influences functional neurological recovery in human cardiac arrest survivors. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 1997;17:430–436
  107. Nadkarni VM, Larkin GL, Peberdy MA, et al. First documented rhythm and clinical outcome from in-hospital cardiac arrest among children and adults. JAMA. 2006;295:50–57
  108. Nagao K, Hayashi N, Kanmatsuse K, et al. Cardiopulmonary cerebral resuscitation using emergency cardiopulmonary bypass, coronary reperfusion therapy and mild hypothermia in patients with cardiac arrest outside the hospital. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2000;36:776–783
  109. Negovsky VA. The second step in resuscitation – the treatment of the ‘post-resuscitation disease’. Resuscitation. 1972;1:1–7
  110. Negovsky VA. Postresuscitation disease. Crit. Care Med. 1988;16:942–946
  111. Negovsky VA, Gurvitch AM. Post-resuscitation disease – a new nosological entity. Its reality and significance. Resuscitation. 1995;30:23–27
  112. Neumar RW. Molecular mechanisms of ischemic neuronal injury. Ann. Emerg. Med. 2000;36:483–506
  113. Nichol G, Karmy-Jones R, Salerno C, Cantore L, Becker L. Systematic review of percutaneous cardiopulmonary bypass for cardiac arrest or cardiogenic shock states. Resuscitation. 2006;70:381–394
  114. Nishizawa H, Kudoh I. Cerebral autoregulation is impaired in patients resuscitated after cardiac arrest. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand. 1996;40:1149–1153
  115. Nolan JP, Morley PT, Vanden Hoek TL, Hickey RW. Therapeutic hypothermia after cardiac arrest. An advisory statement by the Advancement Life support Task Force of the International Liaison committee on Resuscitation. Resuscitation. 2003;57:231–235
  116. Nolan JP, Laver SR, Welch CA, Harrison DA, Gupta V, Rowan K. Outcome following admission to UK intensive care units after cardiac arrest: a secondary analysis of the ICNARC Case Mix Programme Database. Anaesthesia. 2007;62:1207–1216
  117. Oddo M, Schaller MD, Feihl F, Ribordy V, Liaudet L. From evidence to clinical practice: effective implementation of therapeutic hypothermia to improve patient outcome after cardiac arrest. Crit. Care Med. 2006;34:1865–1873
  118. Oku K, Kuboyama K, Safar P, et al. Cerebral and systemic arteriovenous oxygen monitoring after cardiac arrest. Inadequate cerebral oxygen delivery. Resuscitation. 1994;27:141–152
  119. Opie LH. Reperfusion injury and its pharmacologic modification. Circulation. 1989;80:1049–1062
  120. Ornato JP, Ryschon TW, Gonzalez ER, Bredthauer JL. Rapid change in pulmonary vascular hemodynamics with pulmonary edema during cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Am. J. Emerg. Med. 1985;3:137–142
  121. Parvizi J, Damasio AR. Neuroanatomical correlates of brain-stem coma. Brain. 2003;126:1524–1536
  122. Pearse R, Dawson D, Fawcett J, Rhodes A, Grounds RM, Bennett ED. Early goal-directed therapy after major surgery reduces complications and duration of hospital stay. A randomised, controlled trial [ISRCTN38797445]. Crit. Care. 2005;9:R687–R693
  123. Peberdy MA, Kaye W, Ornato JP, et al. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation of adults in the hospital: a report of 14720 cardiac arrests from the National Registry of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation. Resuscitation. 2003;58:297–308
  124. Pell JP, Sirel JM, Marsden AK, Ford I, Walker NL, Cobbe SM. Presentation, management, and outcome of out of hospital cardiopulmonary arrest: comparison by underlying aetiology. Heart. 2003;89:839–842
  125. Plotz FB, Slutsky AS, van Vught AJ, Heijnen CJ. Ventilator-induced lung injury and multiple system organ failure: a critical review of facts and hypotheses. Intensive Care Med. 2004;30:1865–1872
  126. Plum F, Posner J. The Diagnosis of Coma and Stupor. PA, Philadelphia: Davis; 1980;
  127. Polonen P, Ruokonen E, Hippelainen M, Poyhonen M, Takala J. A prospective, randomized study of goal-oriented hemodynamic therapy in cardiac surgical patients. Anesth. Analg. 2000;90:1052–1059
  128. Prengel AW, Lindner KH, Ensinger H, Grunert A. Plasma catecholamine concentrations after successful resuscitation in patients. Crit. Care Med. 1992;20:609–614
  129. Pulsinelli WA. Selective neuronal vulnerability: morphological and molecular characteristics. Prog. Brain Res. 1985;63:29–37
  130. Pulsinelli WA, Waldman S, Rawlinson D, Plum F. Moderate hyperglycemia augments ischemic brain damage: a neuropathologic study in the rat. Neurology. 1982;32:1239–1246
  131. Pusswald G, Fertl E, Faltl M, Auff E. Neurological rehabilitation of severely disabled cardiac arrest survivors. Part II. Life situation of patients and families after treatment. Resuscitation. 2000;47:241–248
  132. Medical aspects of the persistent vegetative state (1) 1994. The multi-society task force on PVS. N. Engl. J. Med. 330, 1499–1508.
  133. Quintero-Moran B, Moreno R, Villarreal S, et al. Percutaneous coronary intervention for cardiac arrest secondary to ST-elevation acute myocardial infarction. Influence of immediate paramedical/medical assistance on clinical outcome. J. Invasive Cardiol. 2006;18:269–272
  134. Richards EM, Fiskum G, Rosenthal RE, Hopkins I, McKenna MC. Hyperoxic reperfusion after global ischemia decreases hippocampal energy metabolism. Stroke. 2007;38:1578–1584
  135. Richling N, Herkner H, Holzer M, Riedmueller E, Sterz F, Schreiber W. Thrombolytic therapy vs. primary percutaneous intervention after ventricular fibrillation cardiac arrest due to acute ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction and itseffect on outcome. Am. J. Emerg. Med. 2007;25:545–550
  136. Rivers EP, Martin GB, Smithline H, et al. The clinical implications of continuous central venous oxygen saturation during human CPR. Ann. Emerg. Med. 1992;21:1094–1101
  137. Rivers EP, Rady MY, Martin GB, et al. Venous hyperoxia after cardiac arrest. Characterization of a defect in systemic oxygen utilization. Chest. 1992;102:1787–1793
  138. Rivers EP, Wortsman J, Rady MY, Blake HC, McGeorge FT, Buderer NM. The effect of the total cumulative epinephrine dose administered during human CPR on hemodynamic, oxygen transport, and utilization variables in the postresuscitation period. Chest. 1994;106:1499–1507
  139. Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N. Engl. J. Med. 2001;345:1368–1377
  140. Roine RO, Launes J, Nikkinen P, Lindroth L, Kaste M. Regional cerebral blood flow after human cardiac arrest. A hexamethylpropyleneamine oxime single photon emission computed tomographic study. Arch. Neurol. 1991;48:625–629
  141. Roine RO, Kajaste S, Kaste M. Neuropsychological sequelae of cardiac arrest. JAMA. 1993;269:237–242
  142. Ruiz-Bailen M, Aguayo de Hoyos E, Ruiz-Navarro S, et al. Reversible myocardial dysfunction after cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Resuscitation. 2005;66:175–181
  143. Sakabe T, Tateishi A, Miyauchi Y, et al. Intracranial pressure following cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Intensive Care Med. 1987;13:256–259
  144. Sanchez-Fructuoso Al, Marques M, Prats D, et al. Victims of cardiac arrest occurring outside the hospital: a source of transplantable kidneys. Ann. Intern. Med. 2006;145:157–164
  145. Sandier DA, Martin JF. Autopsy proven pulmonary embolism in hospital patients: are we detecting enough deep vein thrombosis?. J. R Soc. Med. 1989;82:203–205
  146. Schaafsma A, de Jong BM, Bams JL, Haaxma-Reiche H, Pruim J, Zijlstra JG. Cerebral perfusion and metabolism in resuscitated patients with severe post-hypoxic encephalopathy. J. Neurol. Sci. 2003;210:23–30
  147. Schiff ND, Plum F. The role of arousal and “gating” systems in the neurology of impaired consciousness. J. Clin. Neurophysiol. 2000;17:438–452
  148. Schreiber W, Gabriel D, Sterz F, et al. Thrombolytic therapy after cardiac arrest and its effect on neurological outcome. Resuscitation. 2002;52:63–69
  149. Schultz CH, Rivers EP, Feldkamp CS, et al. A characterization of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function during and after human cardiac arrest. Crit. Care Med. 1993;21:1339–1347
  150. Shaffner DH, Eleff SM, Brambrink AM, et al. Effect of arrest time and cerebral perfusion pressure during cardiopulmonary resuscitation on cerebral blood flow, metabolism, adenosine triphosphate recovery, and pH in dogs. Crit. Care Med. 1999;27:1335–1342
  151. Skrifvars MB, Pettila V, Rosenberg PH, Castren M. A multiple logistic regression analysis of in-hospital factors related to survival at six months in patients resuscitatedfrom out-of-hospital ventricular fibrillation. Resuscitation. 2003;59:319–328
  152. Spaulding CM, Joly LM, Rosenberg A, et al. Immediate coronary angiography in survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997;336:1629–1633
  153. Steiner LA, Balestreri M, Johnston AJ, et al. Sustained moderate reductions in arterial CO2 after brain trauma time-course of cerebral blood flow velocity and intracranial pressure. Intensive Care Med. 2004;30:2180–2187
  154. Stephenson HE, Reid LC, Hinton JW. Some common denominators in 1200 cases of cardiac arrest. Ann. Surg. 1953;137:731–744
  155. Sterz F, Leonov Y, Safar P, et al. Multifocal cerebral blood flow by Xe-CT and global cerebral metabolism after prolonged cardiac arrest in dogs. Reperfusion with open-chest CPR or cardiopulmonary bypass. Resuscitation. 1992;24:27–47
  156. Stevens RD, Bhardwaj A. Approach to the comatose patient. Crit. Care Med. 2006;34:31–41
  157. Stiell IG, Wells GA, Field B, et al. Advanced cardiac life support in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004;351:647–656
  158. Sunde K, PytteM , Jacobsen D, et al. Implementation of a standardised treatment protocol for post resuscitation care after out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation. 2007;73:29–39
  159. Sundgreen C, Larsen FS, Herzog TM, Knudsen GM, Boesgaard S, Aldershvile J. Autoregulation of cerebral blood flow in patients resuscitated from cardiac arrest. Stroke. 2001;32:128–132
  160. Sung K, Lee YT, Park PW, et al. Improved survival after cardiac arrest using emergent autopriming percutaneous cardiopulmonary support. Ann. Thorac. Surg. 2006;82:651–656
  161. Takasu A, Saitoh D, Kaneko N, Sakamoto T, Okada Y. Hyperthermia: is it an ominous sign after cardiac arrest?. Resuscitation. 2001;49:273–277
  162. Taraszewska A, Zelman IB, Ogonowska W, Chrzanowska H. The pattern of irreversible brain changes after cardiac arrest in humans. Folia Neuropathol. 2002;40:133–141
  163. Torbey MT, Selim M, Knorr J, Bigelow C, Recht L. Quantitative analysis of the loss of distinction between gray and white matter in comatose patients after cardiac arrest. Stroke. 2000;31:2163–2167
  164. Vaagenes P, Safar P, Moossy J, et al. Asphyxiation versus ventricular fibrillation cardiac arrest in dogs. Differences in cerebral resuscitation effects – a preliminary study. Resuscitation. 1997;35:41–52
  165. van Alem AP, de Vos R, Schmand B, Koster RW. Cognitive impairment in survivors of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Am. Heart J. 2004;148:416–421
  166. van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients. N. Engl. J. Med. 2001;345:1359–1367
  167. Vasquez A, Kern KB, Hilwig RW, Heidenreich J, Berg RA, Ewy GA. Optimal dosing of dobutamine for treating post-resuscitation left ventricular dysfunction. Resuscitation. 2004;61:199–207
  168. Vereczki V, Martin E, Rosenthal RE, Hof PR, Hoffman GE, Fiskum G. Normoxic resuscitation after cardiac arrest protects against hippocampal oxidative stress, metabolic dysfunction, and neuronal death. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. 2006;26:821–835
  169. Wass CT, Scheithauer BW, Bronk JT, Wilson RM, Lanier WL. Insulin treatment of corticosteroid-associated hyperglycemia and its effect on outcome after forebrain ischemia in rats. Anesthesiology. 1996;84:644–651
  170. White BC, Grossman LI, Krause GS. Brain injury by global ischemia and reperfusion: a theoretical perspective on membrane damage and repair. Neurology. 1993;43:1656–1665
  171. Wilson DJ, Fisher A, Das K, et al. Donors with cardiac arrest: improved organ recovery but no preconditioning benefit in liver allografts. Transplantation. 2003;75:1683–1687
  172. Wolfson SK, Safar P, Reich H, et al. Dynamic heterogeneity of cerebral hypoperfusion after prolonged cardiac arrest in dogs measured by the stable xenon/CT technique: a preliminary study. Resuscitation. 1992;23:1–20
  173. Young GB, Pigott SE. Neurobiological basis of consciousness. Arch. Neurol. 1999;56:153–157
  174. Young KD, Gausche-Hill M, McClung CD, Lewis RJ. A prospective, population-based study of the epidemiology and outcome of out-of-hospital pediatric cardiopulmonary arrest. Pediatrics. 2004;114:157–164
  175. Zeiner A, Holzer M, Sterz F, et al. Hyperthermia after cardiac arrest is associated with an unfavorable neurologic outcome. Arch. Intern. Med. 2001;161:2007–2012
  176. Zhang C, Siman R, Xu YA, Mills AM, Frederick JR, Neumar RW. Comparison of calpain and caspase activities in the adult rat brain after transient forebrain ischemia. Neurobiol. Dis. 2002;10:289–295
  177. Zheng ZJ, Croft JB, Giles WH, Mensah GA. Sudden cardiac death in the United States 1989 to 1998. Circulation. 2001;104:2158–2163
  178. Zipes DP, Wellens HJ. Sudden cardiac death. Circulation. 1998;98:2334–2351
  179. Zwemer CF, Whitesall SE, D’Alecy LG. Cardiopulmonary-cerebral resuscitation with 100% oxygen exacerbates neurological dysfunction following nine minutes of normothermic cardiac arrest in dogs. Resuscitation. 1994;27:159–170

 A Spanish translated version of the summary of this article appears as Appendix in the online version at doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2008.09.17.

☆☆ Endorsed by the American College of Emergency Physicians, Society for Academic Emergency Medicine, Society of Critical Care Medicine, and Neurocritical Care Society.

☆☆☆ This article was originally co-published in Resuscitation and Circulation. This article is republished with permission from Circulation. 2008; 118:2452-2483 © 2008, American Heart Association, Inc. and Resuscitation. 79/3: 350-379 © 2008 Elsevier Ireland Ltd.

PII: S1755-599X(09)00002-0

doi: 10.1016/j.ienj.2009.01.001

International Emergency Nursing
Volume 17, Issue 4 , Pages 203-225 , October 2009